sobota, 16 marca 2024

New book

 The first volume of my work was published on Amazon

Józef Gelbard

On the Philosophical Track

The New Cosmology

Universe of Dual Gravitation

At the threshold of the second (gravitational) quantum revolution

(Revolution? Maybe Arrogance?)

 

 

 

 

 

 

First volume

At the base of a New Cosmology

From the cosmological principle to the Big Bang

Hubble, background radiation, everything that exist


środa, 28 lipca 2021

The cosmological principle 11

 

Supplement

 

Many conclusions consistent with the concept presented here could be reached as early as in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. This is not an exaggeration. Another thing is that such a model would certainly not be preferred. Even in the early twentieth century, it was common to view, solely on the basis of intuition, that the universe was static and infinite. Significantly, this "infinity" was quite small (...) because it was not known that there are hundreds of billions of other galaxies outside of our galaxy. Nevertheless, the infinite, static universe was obvious then.

At that time, knowledge about the universe was too poor.  In addition, knowledge about the micro world was only just beginning to develop. Although even in the time of Galileo it was possible to go in the direction indicated here (the cosmological principle), and Giordano Bruno fantasized in the spirit of this principle (and ended badly), even in Einstein's time it was definitely too early. For this reason, he introduced a cosmological constant into the equations of general relativity, but he rejected it as soon as it turned out that the universe was expanding. He called it (this constant introduction) his biggest mistake. According to other scientists, if not all, even today, it was a mistake to "deny" even though the universe is still not static (…). Who was right? In my humble opinion, however, Einstein was right. Well, changing your mental habits is an extremely slow process, straight through a generation, if it doesn't take ages.

By the way, I would like to add from myself that the return to the cosmological constant in recent times, despite the fact that the Universe is actually un-static, proves, contrary to appearances, the objective existence of a deep crisis in cosmology. Yes, but thanks to this,   dark energy was "discovered"... As a reminder, today cosmology is uncritically totally based on general relativity, even taking into account the cosmological constant. Today, this theory (even without the cosmological constant) should be supplemented a bit today, and maybe even modified. "Is it not desecrate of holiness?" Every theory should pass the test of falsification. I am convinced that Einstein would not have gone in a direction he himself rejected (and rightly so). Now, well, the drowning man grabs the razor (Ockham's razor here). [The real crisis leads to real progress.]

But let's go back to the universe. In the final conclusion of this first article, on the basis of the cosmological principle, we can even say that the Universe is a fully self-consistent over- object, and the tempo of its evolution is determined by global time. The development of the Universe in each of its elements, even on the smallest scale, is the same, because the basic laws of nature do not depend on the scale. We will return to this conclusion in later articles. Anyway, it will be strengthened by further arguments.

We came to far-reaching conclusions; we basically built the foundations of a coherent model of the universe. And we needed so little for that. Everything now depends on the results of astronomical observations. If they do not confirm the correctness of the model that we are going to build (on the basis of the proportionality of speed and distance, as a conclusion from the cosmological principle), then either another solution should be sought, consistent with the cosmological principle, or this principle is not correct. However, I would leave this conclusion for the end; if only in connection with the Noether theorem (see above).

The center of the universe does not exist

According to today's views, we imagine the space of the Universe as a "balloon" of Riemann's space with positive curvature. The universe of matter is as if on the surface of this balloon. Thanks to this approach, there is no preferred point, no center. But that is not the only possible way to get rid of this special point (to consistence with the cosmological principle).

One can reason differently - what we did here, starting from the postulate that the observed (and observable) Universe is everything, it is expanding, and at the beginning of this expansion it was a relatively small entity. Simply, “Once upon a time we were all together and made something very small” - it was full space. There is no space outside the universe. Only the relative motion of objects of cosmological significance enlarges space, and this increases with the universal relative motion of objects, even inertia. We came to quite surprising conclusions. Will the observational facts confirm them? Will they be confirmed by arguments that will appear later in further articles?

A reader who was impressed by reading my book wrote to Me.* It appears from the letter that he is an educated man (though not a physicist). I also discovered, not for the first time, thanks to the comments on my posts, that the biggest problem is the conclusion, already in the first article on the cosmological principle, that the observable universe is the All, that there is no space outside the universe. This is the most difficult for everyone to digest, despite the fact that it follows explicitly from the cosmological principle.

In response to the letter, I wrote, among other things: The fact that the universe has no center is due to the cosmological principle. There are no privileged points in any way. There is no center, but also there are no points constituting the surface of the "sphere" - the Universe. Anyway, the existence of such a surface directly proves the existence of a center ... There is no surface sphere separating the Universe from the supposedly existing remaining space. So the universe cannot be something sunken. In an infinite void. All points belonging to the Universe are absolutely equiponderant to each other. Therefore, space outside the Universe (of limited size) does not exist. It is not a matter of imagination, but a specific, unknown today, topology. It is even obvious, at least logical. Yet, it is not possible to break through the barrier of the imperative of habitual thinking, and this applies to everyone.

Today's cosmology is in trouble precisely because it has violated the cosmological principle. It is in the light of this principle that every point in the Universe (including an observer) is its center, and at the same time the geometric locus of the points (positions) furthest from it is a kind of sphere.

In an article devoted to the topology of the universe, I cited an ancient sentence: God is an infinite sphere whose center is everywhere and the perimeter is nowhere. Here God, being a sphere, presents the sky with himself - he is the Universe (also an infinite set of points - observers ...), and not what is understood today as God. What a beautiful allegory. The Universe is also a being with a specific topology: it cannot be a sphere because it has no center - due to the full equivalence of all points. So there is no outer surface (of a sphere) that would constitute something alien, would be a violation of harmony, and above all a violation of the cosmological principle. Intuition often fails. In this situation, one cannot speak of a circuit (it is nowhere to be found). What an accurate approach to the topology of the universe. This is reminiscent of Spinoza's pantheism. By the way: How did the ancients know about this?

*) "The universe of dual gravity" in Polish

 

The cosmological principle 10


The dimensions of the universe; the space of the universe; the cosmological principle and the principle of conservation of angular momentum.

Let us return to our hypothesis that the speed of cosmological objects is proportional to the distance. Along with this, the speed of expansion cannot be greater than c - hence, regardless of proportionality, it follows that the size of the universe is limited.

Based on this finding, is it possible to determine the supposed size of the universe? Well, you can, due to the existence of the upper limit of velocity (c), which is the speed of expansion. It will be very easy if it turns out that the radial velocity is indeed proportional to the distance - that was our priority hypothesis. However, this proportionality must first be detected observationally. We have already written this proportionality in post 7: v / r = const. The size of the universe (R) would correspond to the speed of light (c). To compute these dimensions, all you have to do is ... find the value of the proportionality coefficient ("const"). One should refer to observation. This is a very important finding. One could say that this concept is falsifiable.

And now the question: Why should more distant objects they moves away faster? This is an essential question, but it causes confusing. Who asked about it? Only children, I guess. Now, the fact of expanding means that once, in the distant past, the whole universe was relatively small. Supposedly at some point there was chaos. In it, the speed of individual elements of this whole was varied. Due to inertia (yes, just inertia), their motion is preserved. The faster ones are farther away today, and the fastest ones, almost where only light can reach. I guess I answered that question. This approach is also justified by the flatness of the Universe's space (Euclidean space). Why flatness? Therefore, because it is about the real (and inertial) movement of objects. So it is not about some kind of pushing, or about the result of some primordial pressure from nothingness of singularity. By whom? Ask theologians.

Will the model adopted today and in force answer the question that opens this reflection with the same ease?

So what defines the space of the Universe? Is it the state of its curvature, or is it just the relative inertial motion of objects, causing the universe to take up more and more space? I am inclined to view matters in such a way. And what is beyond the material everything? I guess some indefinability, or just (we should be consequent) space outside the Universe does not exist. The space of the Universe increases with the increase of distance between any specific objects (having cosmological significance). The space is created by their movement. Outside of the material universe, space does not exist. Let me even say that given the observation the Universe is everything, it is the full and only being. Have I exaggerated (judging by current perceptions)? I do not think so.

And where is the center of the universe, that is, the place of the Explosion? There is no problem with this if the observable universe is and has always been everything, both material and spatial. All points, all today's positions of bodies together constitute this point of the Explosion, because "we were all together once".

You can also look at it differently. If the universe were an object embedded in a larger (infinite?) Space, it would have a surface (like the surface of a sphere). So it would be possible to determine of the center. In addition, the points belonging to this surface would be highlighted points, and this would be contrary to the cosmological principle.

Here we come across the issue of the topology of the universe. Also this will be discussed. As a reward for your patience.

One hundred years ago, the proposition that the speed of light is invariant, was a revolutionary heuristics and the basis of special relativity. [It doesn't matter whether Einstein knew about the Michelson-Morley experiment or not.] After all, the cosmological principle could not provide the context for research in the field of electromagnetism. Today, after a hundred years, the invariance of c is a conclusion from the cosmological principle (provided that the concept proposed in this paper is applied). The very existence of the upper limit of the (relative) velocity results from the essence of electromagnetism. [Note that all particles (except for neutrinos) participate in the electromagnetic force, so their local speed is not greater than the speed of light. We will deal with neutrinos in an essay devoted to them, solving the problem of their "otherness".]

I have noticed this in my book on the special theory of relativity (An elementary introduction to the Special Theory of Relativity, a bit ... differently). And what does this cosmology have to do with the electromagnetic force (after all, it is about the speed of light)? Apparently, this interaction appeared just as the speed of the universe's expansion had stabilized. It is therefore a secondary thing. The "speed of light" is a relic of this special moment in the history of the universe. Summing up, it can be said that this speed is a relic of the time when the electromagnetic interaction appeared, as well as the moment when the expansion of the universe with today's features started. In this context, it may be justified to suppose that the velocity of the electromagnetic wave may be locally differentiated (even in a vacuum) due to inhomogeneous distribution of matter on a large scale. Is this a reasonable supposition? Is it right? This topic will be discussed in other articles.

And one more thing. According to Noether's theorem, the invariance of the fundamental laws of motion is related to the fulfillment of certain conservation laws. In particular, the invariance of the choice of direction in space is related to the conservation of angular momentum. The principle of conservation of angular momentum is universal, as experiment has shown. So there is complete symmetry with respect to the direction. What does this remind us? Of course, the cosmological principle. As you can see, the cosmological principle is not only a requirement of our cognitive intuition, not only a common-sense imperative. This is a direct conclusion from undoubtedly right and universal findings regarding the course of physical phenomena, findings based on an experiment and confirmed in all phenomena without exception. You can also the opposite. Well, the fulfillment of all these fundamental rights means the rightness of the cosmological principle, its confirmation. These rights are derived from it. This is saying something.

 

wtorek, 20 lipca 2021

Hubble's law 2

 

The basis of measurements 

Indeed, distances from distant galaxies and their velocities must be measured. At the beginning of the 20th century, this issue was not considered, although measuring tools were already at the disposal of scientists. About a hundred years ago, everyone was convinced that the universe was infinite and static. Besides, they did not know that many of the nebulae previously discovered were galaxies like the Milky Way (our galaxy), very distant galaxies. Back then, there was no intellectual basis for measurements, was no motivation. It is obvious that even the model we built, based on the cosmological principle, would not matter. One more thing, everyone has been busy testing general relativity and building models of the universe from it - with great commitment.  To this day, this direction of interest has dominated, despite the fact that at least fifty years ago science found itself in an impasse (and is still there today). [Cosmological constant  and dark energy is a sign of a struggle for survival. Scientists do not know that the balloon of the Riemann Universe (I think) has already burst.

But it was already possible to measure. Speed ​​measurement was not as problematic (Doppler Effect), while distance measurement was challenging. It was already clear that very bright stars such as "white giants" could be used to measure distances, taking into account their brightness variation with distance. They can be identified on the basis of their characteristic spectra. It is enough to rely on the fact that visual brightness is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. However, for comparison purposes, another method had to be found. In 1912 (Henriette Leavitt) it was discovered that Cepheid stars pulsate with a frequency that depends on their absolute brightness (pulsation cycle period: 1-50 days). Cepheids are also giant stars. They were discovered in 1784 (John Goodricke). It is enough to know the pulsation period - to determine the absolute brightness. Comparing it with the visual brightness (magnitude) makes it possible to determine the distance of a given star.

 

Continued in the next article.

Hubble's law 1

 

Preface

Many scientists treat the cosmological principle as a secondary matter. Here in this work, this principle is the basis of all cosmological thinking. Now is the time to research whether our conclusions, based on this principle, agree (or do not conflict) with the observation.

Remember that in this work the cosmological principle has been taken as a basic assumption (a priori) as an axiom. About 500 years ago, at the time of Copernicus, the thought that we are not the center of the universe was a breakthrough, a revolution. Copernicus himself, and later many other philosophers, did not understand the essence of the principle. Even Giordano Bruno, who was burned at the stake in 1600 for his views, did not realize its essence. But today the cosmological principle seems so clear (and "obvious") that even its violation by many hypotheses and theories is not a problem... [It is important that this violation can be presented mathematically - it is immediately acceptable as a scientific thing par excellence, regardless of the category: False - true. The existence of a mathematical notation has become the sole criterion of science. Should it be so?] Recently, the cosmological principle has ceased to be a criterion for assessing the correctness of many hypotheses and even theories. This is not their advantage. The cosmological principle has become a marginal thing, far from what attracts the attention of scientists who obviously deal with "serious" matters. Soon only the historians of science will deal with the cosmological principle. Is it right? After all, based on this principle as a starting point, we obtained interesting and scientifically important results, and we were also able to predict the results of the observations. What matters is that our expectations can be refuted empirically (they are falsifiable). This is the real criterion of science.

Today, the movements of the galaxies (in the Newtonian sense) are not being considered. As you know, in line with the common (and binding) position, we are talking about the expansion of space. In this context, the cosmological principle is not so important. Is it right? I am asking again, referring to the article on the speed of expansion (No. 8). After all, the existence of a speed that does not depend on system of reference - c, even results from a principle. In my opinion, compliance with the cosmological principle should be the criterion for assessing cosmological hypotheses and theories.

The main result of adopting the cosmological principle with regard to the dynamics of objects of cosmological significance was, as we remember, the hypothesis that the relative velocities of galaxies are proportional to their mutual distances. We wrote it symbolically as follows:

v/r =const.

It's a kind of anticipation. Will scientific research confirm this? Is it possible to measure the constant that appears in the formula above? We see that we only need to (...) measure speeds and distances.

The cosmological principle 9

Are currently accepted views about the universe absolutely correct?

Is general relativity really the correct tool for describing the universe as a whole? On the one hand, we have a cosmological principle, and on the other hand, a model based on general relativity.  The cosmological principle defines the universe as nonlocal, and general relativity is a local theory. Today's vision of the Universe is based on the one hand on this theory, and on the other hand on the interpretation (not necessarily correct) of the results of observations.

Today, as is commonly believed, the expansion of the universe is not related to motion in the classical sense, but is the result of changes in the geometry of the universe (changes in curvature). Is it true? Suppose yes. If so, there is a possibility of "accelerated motion" because it is not about forces, but about the expansion of space. In this sense, the Newtonian (force) model is not relevant. [We remind you that according to the cosmological principle, the resultant force acting on any object of cosmological significance is equal to zero. This is consistent with the thesis that the relative motion of objects of cosmological significance is inertial (uniform) motion.] Although the cosmological principle allows for acceleration (if proportional to distance), doubts and questions arise immediately: What is the reason for the acceleration (if any)? Is it an "outward" acceleration although gravity acts in the opposite direction, although General Relativity only describes gravity attraction? [Here I am omitting the "cosmological constant" that Einstein added to his equation, and fourteen years later he gave it up when it became clear that the universe was not static.]

Suppose there is acceleration after all. The speed increases in proportion to time, and also, as previously assumed, in proportion to the distance - accelerated expansion. Under these conditions, the speed of the quasars should be very high. Is their speed greater than the speed detected in the observation (spectrum)? Not of course. But this would indicate that the universe is much smaller than we think. Is it testable? In this situation, is the speed of the galaxies really proportional to the distance (as we expected - see the formula in article 7)? Observation will decide. Wait patiently.

Regardless, the universe in quasar times was much smaller than today - then gravity (attraction), according to the cosmology based on general relativity, was much stronger than today - counteracting expansion (against outward acceleration) more strongly. Besides, where does this outward acceleration come from? Something's not right here.

So maybe the acceleration decreases with distance? If so, the acceleration of the nearest galaxies should be the greatest. But we do not state this. However, we know that the Andromeda Galaxy is even approaching us at a speed of about 300 km / h. We can see that this option is also unrealistic.

Perhaps the retard of movement of galaxies, decreases with time, but more and more with distance? If so, then the speed of the quasars should decrease very quickly, as opposed to the fact that they move very fast relative to us. So this option is also not remarkable. What if acceleration increases over time? So here with us it must be very high (not to mention speed). We do not detect it. In addition, currently, global gravity (which is supposed to inhibit expansion) is expected to be less than in the past when the universe was smaller (according to general relativity). Also this option is not realistic.

In conclusion, any option other than the expansion of the universe at a constant speed is problematic and even unacceptable. And yet scientists cling to the cosmology based on general relativity (they know no other option) and dream of describing the universe with the help of a cosmological constant that supposedly accelerates expansion (there was no other idea, and you have to move forward). Yet Albert Einstein called the cosmological constant his greatest mistake. In my humble opinion, contrary to today's beliefs, he was right. 

The cosmological principle 8

The cosmological principle and the speed of light

 

It is known that the speed of light does not depend on the system of reference (invariance). This invariance is a conceptual basis of the special theory of relativity. Light is an electromagnetic wave and the theory of relativity is based on electromagnetism. Is there any relationship between the speed of light and the expansion of the universe and the cosmological principle?

Based on the special theory of relativity, we know that there is an upper limit of speed - a material body cannot move faster than the limit speed. The speed of light is the limit. But it's not just about electromagnetism. It turns out that the speed of light is the upper limit of the speed of each particle, even if it does not participate in the electromagnetic interaction. Indeed, the matter must be approached from a broader perspective. "But why is this velocity also not dependent on the system of reference, why is it invariant?" [In special relativity it is only assumed that the speed of light is invariant (as a postulate). However, there is no answer to the question: "Why?"] We know that motion is relative - it is impossible to clearly define the speed of the body (due to the existence of different frames of reference). But the speed of light is absolute.

"Invariance of the speed of light" is a postulate, an assumption by Albert Einstein, not directly based on observational facts. However, the conclusions of the theory are confirmed by the experiment. But we still don't know "why the speed of light is invariant." Is it possible to explain invariance? We will soon see that it is.

In the previous article, we built a model (preferred in our eyes) in which the relative velocity of celestial bodies is proportional to the distance (in a set of various objects). According to this model, more distant objects move at a higher radial speed. But we already know that there is a maximum speed equal to the speed of light. Therefore, the speeds of the farthest objects should be close to the speed of light and cannot be greater than it (even equal).

What's the conclusion? It is very possible that the dimensions of the universe are limited. The boundary of the universe (horizon) is determined by an object that moves at the speed of light. Based on this, the speed of the expansion of the universe can be determined. It's the speed of light, of course. The size (radius) of the universe is obviously defined as the distance at which there are objects that move away at the speed of light. [It should be noted here that modern cosmology uses the concept of the tempo of expansion, which is defined by the Hubble factor H. This will be discussed later.]

This limiting speed (speed of expansion) does not depend on the direction of observation, that is, according to the cosmological principle. Thus, it is invariable - it does not depend on the system of reference, because regardless of the direction of observation - the same maximum speed. In summary, the speed of light does not depend on a system of reference, as it is the expansion speed of the universe. This is the secret of the existence of invariant speed. We have here confirmation of the validity of the cosmological principle. The speed of light is not relative, it is not local. Also, the universe as a whole is not local because it is all that exists (materially). [A local object is one whose location can be determined because there are other, external objects.]

The size of the universe ("radius") is determined by the distance of the most distant objects because their velocity tends to c. They represent matter that existed at a very early stage of expansion, about 15 billion years ago. Back then, the universe was very small, so it was auto-coordinated in terms of features and phenomena, and so it also expanded in any direction at the same speed c. It is acceptable that even today the universe is completely auto-coordinated. [So we have a cosmological principle. Here the circle closes.] It is obvious that you cannot see what was at the very beginning, even with the best telescopes. It is not possible. After all, in the first moments, there was no electromagnetic radiation (light). However, our model is in line with what we already see.

The opinion that there are objects faster than light - "they cannot be seen because they are beyond the horizon" is not the conclusion from the observation (for understandable reasons). There is no observational fact that confirms this opinion even indirectly. This judgment is based solely on the theory, or more precisely on the interpretation of general relativity. In the model of the universe built on this theory, light does not run in a straight line, but along geodetic lines - this gives the possibility of a speed greater than light. The idea that there are objects beyond the horizon defined by the speed of light is consistent with the inflation hypothesis. But that's not proof; it's just a hypothetical option, not necessarily the right one.

    For the sake of completeness, it is worth adding that there is an option of moving faster than light. But what would move like that? Perhaps some particles - rather not galaxies.